Tag Archives: Robotics

Learning to See Transparent Objects

Posted by Shreeyak Sajjan, Research Engineer, Synthesis AI and Andy Zeng, Research Scientist, Robotics at Google

Optical 3D range sensors, like RGB-D cameras and LIDAR, have found widespread use in robotics to generate rich and accurate 3D maps of the environment, from self-driving cars to autonomous manipulators. However, despite the ubiquity of these complex robotic systems, transparent objects (like a glass container) can confound even a suite of expensive sensors that are commonly used. This is because optical 3D sensors are driven by algorithms that assume all surfaces are Lambertian, i.e., they reflect light evenly in all directions, resulting in a uniform surface brightness from all viewing angles. However, transparent objects violate this assumption, since their surfaces both refract and reflect light. Hence, most of the depth data from transparent objects are invalid or contain unpredictable noise.

Transparent objects often fail to be detected by optical 3D sensors. Top, Right: For instance, glass bottles do not show up in the 3D depth imagery captured from an Intel® RealSense™ D415 RGB-D camera. Bottom: A 3D visualization via point clouds constructed from the depth image.

Enabling machines to better sense transparent surfaces would not only improve safety, but could also open up a range of new interactions in unstructured applications — from robots handling kitchenware or sorting plastics for recycling, to navigating indoor environments or generating AR visualizations on glass tabletops.

To address this problem, we teamed up with researchers from Synthesis AI and Columbia University to develop ClearGrasp, a machine learning algorithm that is capable of estimating accurate 3D data of transparent objects from RGB-D images. This is made possible by a large-scale synthetic dataset that we are also releasing publicly today. ClearGrasp can work with inputs from any standard RGB-D camera, using deep learning to accurately reconstruct the depth of transparent objects and generalize to completely new objects unseen during training. This in contrast to previous methods, which required prior knowledge of the transparent objects (e.g., their 3D models), often combined with maps of background lighting and camera positions. In this work, we also demonstrate that ClearGrasp can benefit robotic manipulation by incorporating it into our pick and place robot’s control system, where we observe significant improvements in the grasping success rate of transparent plastic objects.

ClearGrasp uses deep learning to recover accurate 3D depth data of transparent surfaces.

A Visual Dataset of Transparent Objects
Massive quantities of data are required to train any effective deep learning model (e.g., ImageNet for vision or Wikipedia for BERT), and ClearGrasp is no exception. Unfortunately, no datasets are available with 3D data of transparent objects. Existing 3D datasets like Matterport3D or ScanNet overlook transparent surfaces, because they require expensive and time-consuming labeling processes.

To overcome this issue, we created our own large-scale dataset of transparent objects that contains more than 50,000 photorealistic renders with corresponding surface normals (representing the surface curvature), segmentation masks, edges, and depth, useful for training a variety of 2D and 3D detection tasks. Each image contains up to five transparent objects, either on a flat ground plane or inside a tote, with various backgrounds and lighting.

Some example data of transparent objects from the ClearGrasp synthetic dataset.

We also include a test set of 286 real-world images with corresponding ground truth depth. The real-world images were taken by a painstaking process of replacing each transparent object in the scene with a painted one in the same pose. The images are captured under a number of different indoor lighting conditions, using various cloth and veneer backgrounds and containing random opaque objects scattered around the scene. They contain both known objects, present in the synthetic training set, and novel objects.

Left: The real-world image capturing setup, Middle: Custom user interface enables precisely replacing each transparent object with a spray-painted duplicate, Right: Example of captured data.

The Challenge
While the distorted view of the background seen through transparent objects confounds typical depth estimation approaches, there are clues that hint at the objects’ shape. Transparent surfaces exhibit specular reflections, which are mirror-like reflections that show up as bright spots in a well-lit environment. Since these visual cues are prominent in RGB images and are influenced primarily by the shape of the objects, convolutional neural networks can use these reflections to infer accurate surface normals, which then can be used for depth estimation.

Specular reflections on transparent objects create distinct features that vary based on the object shape and provide strong visual cues for estimating surface normals.

Most machine learning algorithms try to directly estimate depth from a monocular RGB image. However, monocular depth estimation is an ill-posed task, even for humans. We observed large errors in estimating the depth of flat background surfaces, which compounds the error in depth estimates for the transparent objects resting atop them. Therefore, rather than directly estimating the depth of all geometry, we conjectured that correcting the initial depth estimates from an RGB-D 3D camera is more practical — it would enable us to use the depth from the non-transparent surfaces to inform the depth of transparent surfaces.

The ClearGrasp Algorithm
ClearGrasp uses 3 neural networks: a network to estimate surface normals, one for occlusion boundaries (depth discontinuities), and one that masks transparent objects. The mask is used to remove all pixels belonging to transparent objects, so that the correct depths can be filled in. We then use a global optimization module that starts extending the depth from known surfaces, using the predicted surface normals to guide the shape of the reconstruction, and the predicted occlusion boundaries to maintain the separation between distinct objects.

Overview of our method. The point cloud was generated using the output depth and is colored with its surface normals.

Each of the neural networks was trained on our synthetic dataset and they performed well on real-world transparent objects. However, the surface normal estimations for other surfaces, like walls or fruits, were poor. This is because of the limitations of our synthetic dataset, which contains only transparent objects on a ground plane. To alleviate this issue, we included some real indoor scenes from the Matterport3D and ScanNet datasets in the surface normals training loop. By training on both the in-domain synthetic dataset and out-of-domain real word dataset, the model performed well on all surfaces in our test set.

Surface Normal estimation on real images when trained on a) Matterport3D and ScanNet only (MP+SN), b) our synthetic dataset only, and c) MP+SN as well as our synthetic dataset. Note how the model trained on MP+SN fails to detect the transparent objects. The model trained on only synthetic data picks up the real plastic bottles remarkably well, but fails for other objects and surfaces. When trained on both, our model gets the best of both worlds.

Results
Overall, our quantitative experiments show that ClearGrasp is able to reconstruct depth for transparent objects with much higher fidelity than alternative methods. Despite being trained on only synthetic transparent objects, we find our models are able to adapt well to the real-world domain — achieving very similar quantitative reconstruction performance on known objects across domains. Our models also generalize well to novel objects with complex shapes never seen before.

To check the qualitative performance of ClearGrasp, we construct 3D point clouds from the input and output depth images, as shown below (additional examples available on the project webpage). The resulting estimated 3D surfaces have clean and coherent reconstructed shapes — important for applications, such as 3D mapping and 3D object detection — without the jagged noise seen in monocular depth estimation methods. Our models are robust and perform well in challenging conditions, such as identifying transparent objects situated in a patterned background or differentiating between transparent objects partially occluding one another.

Qualitative results on real images. Top two rows: results on known objects. Bottom two rows: results on novel objects. The point clouds, colored with their surface normals, are generated from the corresponding depth images.

Most importantly, the output depth from ClearGrasp can be directly used as input to state-of-the-art manipulation algorithms that use RGB-D images. By using ClearGrasp’s output depth estimates instead of the raw sensor data, our grasping algorithm on a UR5 robot arm saw significant improvements in the grasping success rates of transparent objects. When using the parallel-jaw gripper, the success rate improved from a baseline of 12% to 74%, and from 64% to 86% with suction.

Manipulation of novel transparent objects using ClearGrasp. Note the challenging conditions: textureless background, complex object shapes and the directional light causing confusing shadows and caustics (the patterns of light that occur when light rays are reflected or refracted from a surface).

Limitations & Future Work
A limitation of our synthetic dataset is that it does not represent accurate caustics, due to the limitations of rendering with traditional path-tracing algorithms. As a result, our models confuse bright caustics coupled with shadows to be independent transparent objects. Despite these drawbacks, our work with ClearGrasp shows that synthetic data remains a viable approach to achieve competent results for learning-based depth reconstruction methods. A promising direction for future work is improving the domain transfer to real-world images by generating renders with physically-correct caustics and surface imperfections such as fingerprints.

With ClearGrasp, we demonstrate that high-quality renders can be used to successfully train models that perform well in the real world. We hope that our dataset will drive further research on data-driven perception algorithms for transparent objects. Download links and more example images can be found on our project website and our GitHub repository.

Acknowledgements
This research was done by Shreeyak Sajjan (Synthesis.ai), Matthew Moore (Synthesis.ai), Mike Pan (Synthesis.ai), Ganesh Nagaraja (Synthesis.ai), Johnny Lee, Andy Zeng, and Shuran Song (Columbia University). We would like to thank Ryan Hickman for managerial support, Ivan Krasin and Stefan Welker for fruitful technical discussions, Cameron (@camfoxmusic) for sharing 3D models of his potion bottles and Sharat Sajjan for helping with web design.

Source: Google AI Blog

Learning to Assemble and to Generalize from Self-Supervised Disassembly

Posted by Kevin Zakka, Research Intern and Andy Zeng, Research Scientist, Robotics at Google

Our physical world is full of different shapes, and learning how they are all interconnected is a natural part of interacting with our surroundings — for example, we understand that coat hangers hook onto clothing racks, power plugs insert into wall outlets, and USB cables fit into USB sockets. This general concept of “how things fit together'' based on their shapes is something that people acquire over time and experience, and it helps to increase the efficiency with which we perform tasks, like assembling DIY furniture kits or packing gifts into a box. If robots could learn “how things fit together,” then perhaps they could become more adaptable to new manipulation tasks involving objects they have never seen before, like reconnecting severed pipes, or building makeshift shelters by piecing together debris during disaster response scenarios.

To explore this idea, we worked with researchers from Stanford and Columbia Universities to develop Form2Fit, a robotic manipulation algorithm that uses deep neural networks to learn to visually recognize how objects correspond (or “fit”) to each other. To test this algorithm, we tasked a real robot to perform kit assembly, where it needed to accurately assemble objects into a blister pack or corrugated display to form a single unit. Previous systems built for this task required extensive manual tuning to assemble a single kit unit at a time. However, we demonstrate that by learning the general concept of “how things fit together,” Form2Fit enables our robot to assemble various types of kits with a 94% success rate. Furthermore, Form2Fit is one of the first systems capable of generalizing to new objects and kitting tasks not seen during training.

Form2Fit learns to assemble a wide variety of kits by finding geometric correspondences between object surfaces and their target placement locations. By leveraging geometric information learned from multiple kits during training, the system generalizes to new objects and kits.

While often overlooked, shape analysis plays an important role in manipulation, especially for tasks like kit assembly. In fact, the shape of an object often matches the shape of its corresponding space in the packaging, and understanding this relationship is what allows people to do this task with minimal guesswork. At its core, Form2Fit aims to learn this relationship by training over numerous pairs of objects and their corresponding placing locations across multiple different kitting tasks – with the goal to acquire a broader understanding of how shapes and surfaces fit together. Form2Fit improves itself over time with minimal human supervision, gathering its own training data by repeatedly disassembling completed kits through trial and error, then time-reversing the disassembly sequences to get assembly trajectories. After training overnight for 12 hours, our robot learns effective pick and place policies for a variety of kits, achieving 94% assembly success rates with objects and kits in varying configurations, and over 86% assembly success rates when handling completely new objects and kits.

Data-Driven Shape Descriptors For Generalizable Assembly
The core component of Form2Fit is a two-stream matching network that learns to infer orientation-sensitive geometric pixel-wise descriptors for objects and their target placement locations from visual data. These descriptors can be understood as compressed 3D point representations that encode object geometry, textures, and contextual task-level knowledge. Form2Fit uses these descriptors to establish correspondences between objects and their target locations (i.e., where they should be placed). Since these descriptors are orientation-sensitive, they allow Form2Fit to infer how the picked object should be rotated before it is placed in its target location.

Form2Fit uses two additional networks to generate valid pick and place candidates. A suction network gets fed a 3D image of the objects and generates pixel-wise predictions of suction success. The suction probability map is visualized as a heatmap, where hotter pixels indicate better locations to grasp the object at the 3D location of the corresponding pixel. In parallel, a place network gets fed a 3D image of the target kit and outputs pixel-wise predictions of placement success. These, too, are visualized as a heatmap, where higher confidence values serve as better locations for the robot arm to approach from a top-down angle to place the object. Finally, the planner integrates the output of all three modules to produce the final pick location, place location and rotation angle.

Overview of Form2Fit. The suction and place networks infer candidate picking and placing locations in the scene respectively. The matching network generates pixel-wise orientation-sensitive descriptors to match picking locations to their corresponding placing locations. The planner then integrates it all to control the robot to execute the next best pick and place action.

Learning Assembly from Disassembly
Neural networks require large amounts of training data, which can be difficult to collect for tasks like assembly. Precisely inserting objects into tight spaces with the correct orientation (e.g., in kits) is challenging to learn through trial and error, because the chances of success from random exploration can be slim. In contrast, disassembling completed units is often easier to learn through trial and error, since there are fewer incorrect ways to remove an object than there are to correctly insert it. We leveraged this difference in order to amass training data for Form2Fit.

An example of self-supervision through time-reversal: rewinding a disassembly sequence of a deodorant kit over time generates a valid assembly sequence.

Our key observation is that in many cases of kit assembly, a disassembly sequence – when reversed over time – becomes a valid assembly sequence. This concept, called time-reversed disassembly, enables Form2Fit to train entirely through self-supervision by randomly picking with trial and error to disassemble a fully-assembled kit, then reversing that disassembly sequence to learn how the kit should be put together.

Generalization Results
The results of our experiments show great potential for learning generalizable policies for assembly. For instance, when a policy is trained to assemble a kit in only one specific position and orientation, it can still robustly assemble random rotations and translations of the kit 90% of the time.

Form2Fit policies are robust to a wide range of rotations and translations of the kits.

We also find that Form2Fit is capable of tackling novel configurations it has not been exposed to during training. For example, when training a policy on two single-object kits (floss and tape), we find that it can successfully assemble new combinations and mixtures of those kits, even though it has never seen such configurations before.

Form2Fit policies can generalize to novel kit configurations such as multiple versions of the same kit and mixtures of different kits.

Furthermore, when given completely novel kits on which it has not been trained, Form2Fit can generalize using its learned shape priors to assemble those kits with over 86% assembly accuracy.

Form2Fit policies can generalize to never-before-seen single and multi-object kits.

What Have the Descriptors Learned?
To explore what the descriptors of the matching network from Form2Fit have learned to encode, we visualize the pixel-wise descriptors of various objects in RGB colorspace through use of an embedding technique called t-SNE.

The t-SNE embedding of the learned object descriptors. Similarly oriented objects of the same category display identical colors (e.g. A, B or F, G) while different objects (e.g. C, H) and same objects but different orientation (e.g. A, C, D or H, F) exhibit different colors.

We observe that the descriptors have learned to encode (a) rotation — objects oriented differently have different descriptors (A, C, D, E) and (H, F); (b) spatial correspondence — same points on the same oriented objects share similar descriptors (A, B) and (F, G); and (c) object identity — zoo animals and fruits exhibit unique descriptors (columns 3 and 4).

Limitations & Future Work
While Form2Fit’s results are promising, its limitations suggest directions for future work. In our experiments, we assume a 2D planar workspace to constrain the kit assembly task so that it can be solved by sequencing top-down picking and placing actions. This may not work for all cases of assembly – for example, when a peg needs to be precisely inserted at a 45 degree angle. It would be interesting to expand Form2Fit to more complex action representations for 3D assembly.

You can learn more about this work and download the code from our GitHub repository.

Acknowledgments
This research was done by Kevin Zakka, Andy Zeng, Johnny Lee, and Shuran Song (faculty at Columbia University), with special thanks to Nick Hynes, Alex Nichol, and Ivan Krasin for fruitful technical discussions; Adrian Wong, Brandon Hurd, Julian Salazar, and Sean Snyder for hardware support; Ryan Hickman for valuable managerial support; and Chad Richards for helpful feedback on writing.

Source: Google AI Blog

Video Architecture Search

Video understanding is a challenging problem. Because a video contains spatio-temporal data, its feature representation is required to abstract both appearance and motion information. This is not only essential for automated understanding of the semantic content of videos, such as web-video classification or sport activity recognition, but is also crucial for robot perception and learning. Just like humans, an input from a robot’s camera is seldom a static snapshot of the world, but takes the form of a continuous video.

The abilities of today’s deep learning models are greatly dependent on their neural architectures. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for videos are normally built by manually extending known 2D architectures such as Inception and ResNet to 3D or by carefully designing two-stream CNN architectures that fuse together both appearance and motion information. However, designing an optimal video architecture to best take advantage of spatio-temporal information in videos still remains an open problem. Although neural architecture search (e.g., Zoph et al, Real et al) to discover good architectures has been widely explored for images, machine-optimized neural architectures for videos have not yet been developed. Video CNNs are typically computation- and memory-intensive, and designing an approach to efficiently search for them while capturing their unique properties has been difficult.

In response to these challenges, we have conducted a series of studies into automatic searches for more optimal network architectures for video understanding. We showcase three different neural architecture evolution algorithms: learning layers and their module configuration (EvaNet); learning multi-stream connectivity (AssembleNet); and building computationally efficient and compact networks (TinyVideoNet). The video architectures we developed outperform existing hand-made models on multiple public datasets by a significant margin, and demonstrate a 10x~100x improvement in network runtime.

EvaNet: The First Evolved Video Architectures

EvaNet, which we introduce in “Evolving Space-Time Neural Architectures for Videos” at ICCV 2019, is the very first attempt to design neural architecture search for video architectures. EvaNet is a module-level architecture search that focuses on finding types of spatio-temporal convolutional layers as well as their optimal sequential or parallel configurations. An evolutionary algorithm with mutation operators is used for the search, iteratively updating a population of architectures. This allows for parallel and more efficient exploration of the search space, which is necessary for video architecture search to consider diverse spatio-temporal layers and their combinations. EvaNet evolves multiple modules (at different locations within the network) to generate different architectures.

Our experimental results confirm the benefits of such video CNN architectures obtained by evolving heterogeneous modules. The approach often finds that non-trivial modules composed of multiple parallel layers are most effective as they are faster and exhibit superior performance to hand-designed modules. Another interesting aspect is that we obtain a number of similarly well-performing, but diverse architectures as a result of the evolution, without extra computation. Forming an ensemble with them further improves performance. Due to their parallel nature, even an ensemble of models is computationally more efficient than the other standard video networks, such as (2+1)D ResNet. We have open sourced the code.

Examples of various EvaNet architectures. Each colored box (large or small) represents a layer with the color of the box indicating its type: 3D conv. (blue), (2+1)D conv. (orange), iTGM (green), max pooling (grey), averaging (purple), and 1x1 conv. (pink). Layers are often grouped to form modules (large boxes). Digits within each box indicate the filter size.

AssembleNet: Building Stronger and Better (Multi-stream) models

In “AssembleNet: Searching for Multi-Stream Neural Connectivity in Video Architectures”, we look into a new method of fusing different sub-networks with different input modalities (e.g., RGB and optical flow) and temporal resolutions. AssembleNet is a “family” of learnable architectures that provide a generic approach to learn the “connectivity” among feature representations across input modalities, while being optimized for the target task. We introduce a general formulation that allows representation of various forms of multi-stream CNNs as directed graphs, coupled with an efficient evolutionary algorithm to explore the high-level network connectivity. The objective is to learn better feature representations across appearance and motion visual clues in videos. Unlike previous hand-designed two-stream models that use late fusion or fixed intermediate fusion, AssembleNet evolves a population of overly-connected, multi-stream, multi-resolution architectures while guiding their mutations by connection weight learning. We are looking at four-stream architectures with various intermediate connections for the first time — 2 streams per RGB and optical flow, each one at different temporal resolutions.

The figure below shows an example of an AssembleNet architecture, found by evolving a pool of random initial multi-stream architectures over 50~150 rounds. We tested AssembleNet on two very popular video recognition datasets: Charades and Moments-in-Time (MiT). Its performance on MiT is the first above 34%. The performances on Charades is even more impressive at 58.6% mean Average Precision (mAP), whereas previous best known results are 42.5 and 45.2.

The representative AssembleNet model evolved using the Moments-in-Time dataset. A node corresponds to a block of spatio-temporal convolutional layers, and each edge specifies their connectivity. Darker edges mean stronger connections. AssembleNet is a family of learnable multi-stream architectures, optimized for the target task.

A figure comparing AssembleNet with state-of-the-art, hand-designed models on Charades (left) and Moments-in-Time (right) datasets. AssembleNet-50 or AssembleNet-101 has an equivalent number of parameters to a two-stream ResNet-50 or ResNet-101.

Tiny Video Networks: The fastest video understanding networks

In order for a video CNN model to be useful for devices operating in a real-world environment, such as that needed by robots, real-time, efficient computation is necessary. However, achieving state-of-the-art results on video recognition tasks currently requires extremely large networks, often with tens to hundreds of convolutional layers, that are applied to many input frames. As a result, these networks often suffer from very slow runtimes, requiring at least 500+ ms per 1-second video snippet on a contemporary GPU and 2000+ ms on a CPU. In Tiny Video Networks, we address this by automatically designing networks that provide comparable performance at a fraction of the computational cost. Our Tiny Video Networks (TinyVideoNets) achieve competitive accuracy and run efficiently, at real-time or better speeds, within 37 to 100 ms on a CPU and 10 ms on a GPU per ~1 second video clip, achieving hundreds of times faster speeds than the other human-designed contemporary models.

These performance gains are achieved by explicitly considering the model run-time during the architecture evolution and forcing the algorithm to explore the search space while including spatial or temporal resolution and channel size to reduce computations. The below figure illustrates two simple, but very effective architectures, found by TinyVideoNet. Interestingly the learned model architectures have fewer convolutional layers than typical video architectures: Tiny Video Networks prefers lightweight elements, such as 2D pooling, gating layers, and squeeze-and-excitation layers. Further, TinyVideoNet is able to jointly optimize parameters and runtime to provide efficient networks that can be used by future network exploration.

TinyVideoNet (TVN) architectures evolved to maximize the recognition performance while keeping its computation time within the desired limit. For instance, TVN-1 (top) runs at 37 ms on a CPU and 10ms on a GPU. TVN-2 (bottom) runs at 65ms on a CPU and 13ms on a GPU.

CPU runtime of TinyVideoNet models compared to prior models (left) and runtime vs. model accuracy of TinyVideoNets compared to (2+1)D ResNet models (right). Note that TinyVideoNets take a part of this time-accuracy space where no other models exist, i.e., extremely fast but still accurate.

Conclusion

To our knowledge, this is the very first work on neural architecture search for video understanding. The video architectures we generate with our new evolutionary algorithms outperform the best known hand-designed CNN architectures on public datasets, by a significant margin. We also show that learning computationally efficient video models, TinyVideoNets, is possible with architecture evolution. This research opens new directions and demonstrates the promise of machine-evolved CNNs for video understanding.

Acknowledgements

This research was conducted by Michael S. Ryoo, AJ Piergiovanni, and Anelia Angelova. Alex Toshev and Mingxing Tan also contributed to this work. We thank Vincent Vanhoucke, Juhana Kangaspunta, Esteban Real, Ping Yu, Sarah Sirajuddin, and the Robotics at Google team for discussion and support.

Source: Google Open Source Blog

Video Architecture Search

Posted by Michael S. Ryoo, Research Scientist and AJ Piergiovanni, Student Researcher, Robotics at Google

Video understanding is a challenging problem. Because a video contains spatio-temporal data, its feature representation is required to abstract both appearance and motion information. This is not only essential for automated understanding of the semantic content of videos, such as web-video classification or sport activity recognition, but is also crucial for robot perception and learning. Just like humans, an input from a robot’s camera is seldom a static snapshot of the world, but takes the form of a continuous video.

The abilities of today’s deep learning models are greatly dependent on their neural architectures. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for videos are normally built by manually extending known 2D architectures such as Inception and ResNet to 3D or by carefully designing two-stream CNN architectures that fuse together both appearance and motion information. However, designing an optimal video architecture to best take advantage of spatio-temporal information in videos still remains an open problem. Although neural architecture search (e.g., Zoph et al, Real et al) to discover good architectures has been widely explored for images, machine-optimized neural architectures for videos have not yet been developed. Video CNNs are typically computation- and memory-intensive, and designing an approach to efficiently search for them while capturing their unique properties has been difficult.

In response to these challenges, we have conducted a series of studies into automatic searches for more optimal network architectures for video understanding. We showcase three different neural architecture evolution algorithms: learning layers and their module configuration (EvaNet); learning multi-stream connectivity (AssembleNet); and building computationally efficient and compact networks (TinyVideoNet). The video architectures we developed outperform existing hand-made models on multiple public datasets by a significant margin, and demonstrate a 10x~100x improvement in network runtime.

EvaNet: The first evolved video architectures
EvaNet, which we introduce in “Evolving Space-Time Neural Architectures for Videos” at ICCV 2019, is the very first attempt to design neural architecture search for video architectures. EvaNet is a module-level architecture search that focuses on finding types of spatio-temporal convolutional layers as well as their optimal sequential or parallel configurations. An evolutionary algorithm with mutation operators is used for the search, iteratively updating a population of architectures. This allows for parallel and more efficient exploration of the search space, which is necessary for video architecture search to consider diverse spatio-temporal layers and their combinations. EvaNet evolves multiple modules (at different locations within the network) to generate different architectures.

Our experimental results confirm the benefits of such video CNN architectures obtained by evolving heterogeneous modules. The approach often finds that non-trivial modules composed of multiple parallel layers are most effective as they are faster and exhibit superior performance to hand-designed modules. Another interesting aspect is that we obtain a number of similarly well-performing, but diverse architectures as a result of the evolution, without extra computation. Forming an ensemble with them further improves performance. Due to their parallel nature, even an ensemble of models is computationally more efficient than the other standard video networks, such as (2+1)D ResNet. We have open sourced the code.

AssembleNet: Building stronger and better (multi-stream) models
In “AssembleNet: Searching for Multi-Stream Neural Connectivity in Video Architectures”, we look into a new method of fusing different sub-networks with different input modalities (e.g., RGB and optical flow) and temporal resolutions. AssembleNet is a “family” of learnable architectures that provide a generic approach to learn the “connectivity” among feature representations across input modalities, while being optimized for the target task. We introduce a general formulation that allows representation of various forms of multi-stream CNNs as directed graphs, coupled with an efficient evolutionary algorithm to explore the high-level network connectivity. The objective is to learn better feature representations across appearance and motion visual clues in videos. Unlike previous hand-designed two-stream models that use late fusion or fixed intermediate fusion, AssembleNet evolves a population of overly-connected, multi-stream, multi-resolution architectures while guiding their mutations by connection weight learning. We are looking at four-stream architectures with various intermediate connections for the first time — 2 streams per RGB and optical flow, each one at different temporal resolutions.

The figure below shows an example of an AssembleNet architecture, found by evolving a pool of random initial multi-stream architectures over 50~150 rounds. We tested AssembleNet on two very popular video recognition datasets: Charades and Moments-in-Time (MiT). Its performance on MiT is the first above 34%. The performances on Charades is even more impressive at 58.6% mean Average Precision (mAP), whereas previous best known results are 42.5 and 45.2.

Tiny Video Networks: The fastest video understanding networks
In order for a video CNN model to be useful for devices operating in a real-world environment, such as that needed by robots, real-time, efficient computation is necessary. However, achieving state-of-the-art results on video recognition tasks currently requires extremely large networks, often with tens to hundreds of convolutional layers, that are applied to many input frames. As a result, these networks often suffer from very slow runtimes, requiring at least 500+ ms per 1-second video snippet on a contemporary GPU and 2000+ ms on a CPU. In Tiny Video Networks, we address this by automatically designing networks that provide comparable performance at a fraction of the computational cost. Our Tiny Video Networks (TinyVideoNets) achieve competitive accuracy and run efficiently, at real-time or better speeds, within 37 to 100 ms on a CPU and 10 ms on a GPU per ~1 second video clip, achieving hundreds of times faster speeds than the other human-designed contemporary models.

These performance gains are achieved by explicitly considering the model run-time during the architecture evolution and forcing the algorithm to explore the search space while including spatial or temporal resolution and channel size to reduce computations. The below figure illustrates two simple, but very effective architectures, found by TinyVideoNet. Interestingly the learned model architectures have fewer convolutional layers than typical video architectures: Tiny Video Networks prefers lightweight elements, such as 2D pooling, gating layers, and squeeze-and-excitation layers. Further, TinyVideoNet is able to jointly optimize parameters and runtime to provide efficient networks that can be used by future network exploration.

Conclusion
To our knowledge, this is the very first work on neural architecture search for video understanding. The video architectures we generate with our new evolutionary algorithms outperform the best known hand-designed CNN architectures on public datasets, by a significant margin. We also show that learning computationally efficient video models, TinyVideoNets, is possible with architecture evolution. This research opens new directions and demonstrates the promise of machine-evolved CNNs for video understanding.

Acknowledgements
This research was conducted by Michael S. Ryoo, AJ Piergiovanni, and Anelia Angelova. Alex Toshev and Mingxing Tan also contributed to this work. We thank Vincent Vanhoucke, Juhana Kangaspunta, Esteban Real, Ping Yu, Sarah Sirajuddin, and the Robotics at Google team for discussion and support.

Source: Google AI Blog

ROBEL: Robotics Benchmarks for Learning with Low-Cost Robots

Posted by Michael Ahn, Software Engineer and Vikash Kumar, Research Scientist, Robotics at Google

Learning-based methods for solving robotic control problems have recently seen significant momentum, driven by the widening availability of simulated benchmarks (like dm_control or OpenAI-Gym) and advancements in flexible and scalable reinforcement learning techniques (DDPG, QT-Opt, or Soft Actor-Critic). While learning through simulation is effective, these simulated environments often encounter difficulty in deploying to real-world robots due to factors such as inaccurate modeling of physical phenomena and system delays. This motivates the need to develop robotic control solutions directly in the real world, on real physical hardware.

The majority of current robotics research on physical hardware is conducted on high-cost, industrial-quality robots (PR2, Kuka-arms, ShadowHand, Baxter, etc.) intended for precise, monitored operation in controlled environments. Furthermore, these robots are designed around traditional control methods that focus on precision, repeatability, and ease of characterization. This stands in sharp contrast with the learning-based methods that are robust to imperfect sensing and actuation, and demand (a) a high degree of resilience to allow real-world trial-and-error learning, (b) low cost and ease of maintenance to enable scalability through replication and (c) a reliable reset mechanism to alleviate strict human monitoring requirements.

In “ROBEL: Robotics Benchmarks for Learning with Low-Cost Robots”, to be presented at CoRL 2019, we introduce an open-source platform of cost-effective robots and curated benchmarks designed primarily to facilitate research and development on physical hardware in the real world. Analogous to an optical table in the field of optics, ROBEL serves as a rapid experimentation platform, supporting a wide range of experimental needs and the development of new reinforcement learning and control methods. ROBEL consists of D'Claw, a three-fingered hand robot that facilitates learning of dexterous manipulation tasks and D'Kitty, a four-legged robot that enables the learning of agile legged locomotion tasks. The robotic platforms are low-cost, modular, easy to maintain, and are robust enough to sustain on-hardware reinforcement learning from scratch.

Left: The 12 DoF D’Kitty; Middle: The 9 DoF D’Claw; Right: A functional D’Claw setup D’Lantern.

In order to make the robots relatively inexpensive and easy to build, we based ROBEL’s designs on off-the-shelf components and commonly-available prototyping tools (3D-printed or laser cut). Designs are easy to assemble and require only a few hours to build. Detailed part lists (with CAD details), assembly instructions, and software instructions for getting started are available here.

ROBEL Benchmarks
We devised a set of tasks suitable for each platform, D’Claw and D’Kitty, which can be used for benchmarking real-world robotic learning. ROBEL’s task definitions include both dense and sparse task objectives, and introduce metrics for hardware-safety in the task definition, which for example, indicate if joints are exceeding “safe” operating bounds or force thresholds. ROBEL also supports a simulator for all tasks to facilitate algorithmic development and rapid prototyping. D’Claw tasks are centered around three commonly observed manipulation behaviors — Pose, Turn, and Screw.

Left: Pose — Conform to the shape of the environment. Center: Turn — Turn the object to a specified angle. Right: Screw — Continuously rotate the object. (Click images for video.)

D’Kitty tasks are centered around three commonly observed locomotion behaviors — Stand, Orient, and Walk.

Left: Stand — Stand upright. Center: Orient — Align heading with the target. Right: Walk — Move to the target. (Click images for video.)

We evaluated several classes (on-policy, off policy, demo-accelerated, supervised) of deep reinforcement learning methods on each of these benchmark tasks. The evaluation results and the final policies are included as baselines in the software package for comparison. Full task details and baseline performances are available in the technical report.

Reproducibility & Robustness
ROBEL platforms are robust to sustain direct hardware training, and have clocked over 14,000 hours of real-world experience to-date. The platforms have significantly matured over the year. Owing to the modularity of the design, repairs are trivial and require minimal to no domain expertise, making the overall system easy to maintain.

To establish the replicability of the platforms and reproducibility of the benchmarks, ROBEL was studied in isolation by two different research labs. Only software distribution and documentation was used in this study. No in-person visits were allowed. Using ROBEL’s design files and assembly instructions both sites were able to replicate both hardware platforms. Benchmark tasks were trained on robots built at both sites. In the figure below we see that two D’Claw robots built at two different sites not only exhibit similar training progress but also converge to the same final performance, establishing reproducibility of the ROBEL benchmarks.

SAC training performance of a task on two real D’Claw robots developed at different laboratory locations.

Results Gallery
ROBEL has been useful in a variety of reinforcement learning studies so far. Below we highlight a few of the key results, and you can find all our results in this comprehensive gallery. D’Claw platforms are completely autonomous and can sustain reliable experimentation for an extended period of time, and has facilitated experimentation with a wide variety of reinforcement learning paradigms and tasks using both rigid and flexible objects.

Left: Flexible Objects — On-hardware training with DAPG effectively learns to turn flexible objects. We observe manipulation targeting the center of the valve where there is more rigidity. D'Claw is robust to on-hardware training, facilitating successful outcomes on hard to simulate tasks. Center: Disturbance Rejection — A Sim2Real policy trained via Natural Policy Gradient on MuJoCo simulation with object perturbations (amongst others) being tested on hardware. We observe fingers working together to resist external disturbances. Right: Obstructed Finger — A Sim2Real policy trained via Natural Policy Gradient on MuJoCo simulation with external perturbations (amongst others) being tested on hardware. We observe that free fingers fill in for the missing finger.

Importantly, D’Claw platforms are modular and easy to replicate, which facilitates scalable experimentation. With our scaled setup, we find that multiple D’Claws can collectively learn tasks faster by sharing experience.

On-hardware training with distributed version of SAC leaning to turn multiple objects to arbitrary angles in conjunction by sharing experience. Five tasks only need twice the amount of experience of single tasks, thanks to the multi-task formulation. In the video we observe five D'Claws turning different objects to 180 degrees (picked for visual effectiveness, actual policy can turn to any angle).

We have also been successful in deploying robust locomotion policies on the D’Kitty platform. Below we show a blind D’Kitty walking over indoor and outdoor terrains exhibiting the robustness of its gait in presence of unseen disturbances.

Left: Indoor – Walking in Clutter — A Sim2Real policy trained via Natural Policy Gradient on MuJoCo simulation with randomized perturbations learns to walk in clutter and step over objects. Center: Outdoor – Gravel and Branches — A Sim2Real policy trained via Natural Policy Gradient on MuJoCo simulation with randomized height field learns to walk outdoors over gravel and branches. Right: Outdoor – Slope and Grass — A Sim2Real policy trained via Natural Policy Gradient on MuJoCo simulation with randomized height field learns to handle moderate slopes.

When presented with information about its torso and objects present in the scene, D’Kitty can learn to interact with these objects exhibiting complex behaviors.

Left: Avoid Moving Obstacles — Policy trained via Hierarchical Sim2Real learns to avoid a moving block and reach the target (marked by the controller on the floor). Center: Push to Moving Goal — Policy trained via Hierarchical Sim2Real learns to push block towards a moving target (marked by the controller in the hand). Right: Co-ordinate — Policy trained via Hierarchical Sim2Real learns to coordinate two D'Kitties to push a heavy block towards a target (marked by two + signs on the floor).

In conclusion, ROBEL platforms are low cost, robust, reliable and are designed to accommodate the needs of the emerging learning-based paradigms that need scalability and resilience. We are proud to announce the release of ROBEL to the open source community and are excited to learn about the diversity of research and experimentation they will enable. For getting started on ROBEL platforms and ROBEL benchmarks refer to roboticsbenchmarks.org.

Acknowledgments
Google's ROBEL D'Claw evolved from earlier designs Vikash Kumar developed at the Universities of Washington and Berkeley. Multiple people across organizations have contributed towards the ROBEL projects. We thank our co-authors Henry Zhu (UC Berkeley), Kristian Hartikainen (UC Berkeley), Abhishek Gupta (UC Berkeley) and Sergey Levine (Google and UC Berkeley) for their contributions and extensive feedback throughout the project. We would like to acknowledge Matt Neiss (Google) and Chad Richards (Google) for their significant contribution to the platform designs. We would also like to thank Aravind Rajeshwaran (U-Washington), Emo Todorov (U-Washington), and Vincent Vanhoucke (Google) for their helpful discussions and comments throughout the project.

Source: Google AI Blog

Off-Policy Classification – A New Reinforcement Learning Model Selection Method

Posted by Alex Irpan, Software Engineer, Robotics at Google

Reinforcement learning (RL) is a framework that lets agents learn decision making from experience. One of the many variants of RL is off-policy RL, where an agent is trained using a combination of data collected by other agents (off-policy data) and data it collects itself to learn generalizable skills like robotic walking and grasping. In contrast, fully off-policy RL is a variant in which an agent learns entirely from older data, which is appealing because it enables model iteration without requiring a physical robot. With fully off-policy RL, one can train several models on the same fixed dataset collected by previous agents, then select the best one. However, fully off-policy RL comes with a catch: while training can occur without a real robot, evaluation of the models cannot. Furthermore, ground-truth evaluation with a physical robot is too inefficient to test promising approaches that require evaluating a large number of models, such as automated architecture search with AutoML.

This challenge motivates off-policy evaluation (OPE), techniques for studying the quality of new agents using data from other agents. With rankings from OPE, we can selectively test only the most promising models on real-world robots, significantly scaling experimentation with the same fixed real robot budget.

A diagram for real-world model development. Assuming we can evaluate 10 models per day, without off-policy evaluation, we would need 100x as many days to evaluate our models.

Though the OPE framework shows promise, it assumes one has an off-policy evaluation method that accurately ranks performance from old data. However, agents that collected past experience may act very differently from newer learned agents, which makes it hard to get good estimates of performance.

In “Off-Policy Evaluation via Off-Policy Classification”, we propose a new off-policy evaluation method, called off-policy classification (OPC), that evaluates the performance of agents from past data by treating evaluation as a classification problem, in which actions are labeled as either potentially leading to success or guaranteed to result in failure. Our method works for image (camera) inputs, and doesn’t require reweighting data with importance sampling or using accurate models of the target environment, two approaches commonly used in prior work. We show that OPC scales to larger tasks, including a vision-based robotic grasping task in the real world.

How OPC Works
OPC relies on two assumptions: 1) that the final task has deterministic dynamics, i.e. no randomness is involved in how states change, and 2) that the agent either succeeds or fails at the end of each trial. This second “success or failure” assumption is natural for many tasks, such as picking up an object, solving a maze, winning a game, and so on. Because each trial will either succeed or fail in a deterministic way, we can assign binary classification labels to each action. We say an action is effective if it could lead to success, and is catastrophic if it is guaranteed to lead to failure.

OPC utilizes a Q-function, learned with a Q-learning algorithm, that estimates the future total reward if the agent chooses to take some action from its current state. The agent will then choose the action with the largest total reward estimate. In our paper, we prove that the performance of an agent is measured by how often its chosen action is an effective action, which depends on how well the Q-function correctly classifies actions as effective vs. catastrophic. This classification accuracy acts as an off-policy evaluation score.

However, the labeling of data from previous trials is only partial. For example, if a previous trial was a failure, we do not get negative labels because we do not know which action was the catastrophic one. To overcome this, we leverage techniques from semi-supervised learning, positive-unlabeled learning in particular, to get an estimate of classification accuracy from partially labeled data. This accuracy is the OPC score.

Off-Policy Evaluation for Sim-to-Real Learning
In robotics, it’s common to use simulated data and transfer learning techniques to reduce the sample complexity of learning robotics skills. This can be very useful, but tuning these sim-to-real techniques for real-world robotics is challenging. Much like off-policy RL, training doesn’t use the real robot, because it is trained in simulation, but evaluation of that policy still needs to use a real robot. Here, off-policy evaluation can come to the rescue again—we can take a policy trained only in simulation, then evaluate it using previous real-world data to measure its transfer to the real robot. We examine OPC across both fully off-policy RL and sim-to-real RL.

An example of how simulated experience can differ from real-world experience. Here, simulated images (left) have much less visual complexity than real-world images (right).

Results
First, we set up a simulated version of our robot grasping task, where we could easily train and evaluate several models to benchmark off-policy evaluation. These models were trained with fully off-policy RL, then evaluated with off-policy evaluation. We found that in our robotics tasks, a variant of the OPC called the SoftOPC performed best at predicting final success rate.

An experiment in the simulated grasping task. The red curve is the dimensionless SoftOPC score over the course of training, evaluated from old data. The blue curve is the grasp success rate in simulation. We see the SoftOPC on old data correlates well with grasp success of the model within our simulator.

After success in sim, we then tried SoftOPC in the real-world task. We took 15 models, trained to have varying degrees of robustness to the gap between simulation and reality. Of these models, 7 of them were trained purely in simulation, and the rest were trained on mixes of simulated and real-world data. For each model, we evaluated the SoftOPC on off-policy real-world data, then the real-world grasp success, to see how well SoftOPC predicted performance of that model. We found that on real data, the SoftOPC does produce scores that correlate with true grasp success, letting us rank sim-to-real techniques using past real experience.

SoftOPC score and true performance for 3 different sim-to-real methods: a baseline simulation, a simulation with random textures and lighting, and a model trained with RCAN. All three models are trained with no real data, then evaluated with off-policy evaluation on a validation set of real data. The ordering of the SoftOPC score matches the order of real grasp success.

Below is a scatterplot of the full results from all 15 models. Each point represents the off-policy evaluation score and real-world grasp success of each model. We compare different scoring functions by their correlation to final grasp success. The SoftOPC does not correlate perfectly with true grasp success, but its scores are significantly more reliable than baseline approaches like the temporal-difference error (the standard Q-learning loss).

Results from our sim-to-real evaluation experiment. On the left is a baseline, the temporal difference error of the model. On the right is one of our proposed methods, the SoftOPC. The shaded region is a 95% confidence interval. The correlation is significantly better with SoftOPC.

Future Work
One promising direction for future work is to see if we can relax our assumptions about the task, to support tasks where dynamics are more noisy, or where we get partial credit for almost succeeding. However, even with our included assumptions, we think the results are promising enough to be applied to many real-world RL problems.

Acknowledgements
This research was conducted by Alex Irpan, Kanishka Rao, Konstantinos Bousmalis, Chris Harris, Julian Ibarz and Sergey Levine. We’d like to thank Razvan Pascanu, Dale Schuurmans, George Tucker and Paul Wohlhart for valuable discussions. A preprint is available on arXiv.

Source: Google AI Blog

Unifying Physics and Deep Learning with TossingBot

Posted by Andy Zeng, Student Researcher, Robotics at Google

Though considerable progress has been made in enabling robots to grasp objects efficiently, visually self adapt or even learn from real-world experiences, robotic operations still require careful consideration in how they pick up, handle, and place various objects -- especially in unstructured settings. Consider for example, this picking robot which took 1st place in the stowing task of the Amazon Robotics Challenge:

It's an impressive system, built with many design features that kinematically prevent it from dropping objects due to unforeseen dynamics: from its steady and deliberate movements, to its gripper fingers that mechanically constrain the momentum of the object so that it doesn't slip.

This robot, like many others, is designed to tolerate the dynamics of the unstructured world. But instead of just tolerating dynamics, can robots learn to use them advantageously, developing an "intuition" of physics that would allow them to complete tasks more efficiently? Perhaps in doing so, robots can improve their capabilities and acquire complex athletic skills like tossing, sliding, spinning, swinging, or catching, potentially leading to many useful applications, such as more efficient debris clearing robots in disaster response scenarios -- where time is of the essence.

To explore this concept, we worked with researchers at Princeton, Columbia, and MIT to develop TossingBot: a picking robot for our real, random world that learns to grasp and throw objects into selected boxes outside its natural range. We find that by learning to throw, TossingBot is capable of achieving picking speeds that are twice as fast as previous systems, with twice the effective placing range. TossingBot jointly learns grasping and throwing policies using an end-to-end neural network that maps from visual observations (RGB-D images) to control parameters for motion primitives. Using overhead cameras to track where objects land, TossingBot improves itself over time through self-supervision. More technical details are available in an early preprint on arXiv.

The Challenges
Throwing is a particularly difficult task as it depends on many factors: from how the object is picked up (i.e., "pre-throw conditions"), to the object's physical properties like mass, friction, aerodynamics, etc. For example, if you grasp a screwdriver by the handle near the center of mass and throw it, it would land much closer than if you had grasped it from the metal tip, which would swing forward and land much farther away. Regardless of how you grasped it though, tossing a screwdriver is incredibly different from tossing a ping pong ball, which would land closer due to air resistance. Manually designing a solution that explicitly handles these factors for every random object is nearly impossible.

Throwing depends on many factors: from how you picked it up, to object properties and dynamics.

Through deep learning, however, our robots can learn from experience rather than rely on manual case-by-case engineering. Previously we've shown that our robots can learn to push and grasp a large variety of objects, but accurately throwing objects requires a larger understanding of projectile physics. Acquiring this knowledge from scratch with only trial-and-error is not only time consuming and expensive, but also generally doesn't work outside of very specific, and carefully set up training scenarios.

Unifying Physics and Deep Learning
A fundamental component of TossingBot is that it learns to throw by integrating simple physics and deep learning, which enables it to train quickly and generalize to new scenarios. Physics provides prior models of how the world works, and we can leverage these models to develop initial controllers for our robots. In the case of throwing, for example, we can use projectile ballistics to provide an estimate for the throwing velocity that is needed to get an object to land at a target location. We can then use neural networks to predict adjustments on top of that estimate from physics, in order to compensate for unknown dynamics as well as the noise and variability of the real world. We call this hybrid formulation Residual Physics, and it enables TossingBot to achieve throwing accuracies of 85%.

At the start of training with randomly initialized weights, TossingBot repeatedly attempts bad grasps. Over time, however, TossingBot learns better ways to grasp objects and simultaneously improves its ability to throw. Occasionally the robot randomly explores what happens if it throws an object at a velocity that it hasn't tried before. When the bin is emptied, TossingBot lifts the boxes to allow objects to slide back into the bin. This way, human intervention is kept at a minimum during training. By 10,000 grasp and throw attempts (or 14 hours of training time), it is capable of achieving throwing accuracies of 85%, with a grasping reliability of 87% in clutter.

TossingBot starts out performing poorly (left), but progressively learns to grasp and toss overnight (right).

Generalizing to New Scenarios
By integrating physics and deep learning, TossingBot is capable of rapidly adapting to never-before-seen throwing locations and objects. For example, after training on objects with simple shapes like wooden blocks, balls, and markers, it can perform reasonably well on new objects such as fake fruit, decorative items, and office objects. On new objects, TossingBot starts out with lower performance, but quickly adapts within a few hundred training steps (i.e., an hour or two) to achieve similar performance as with training objects. We've found that combining physics and deep learning with Residual Physics yields better performance than baseline alternatives (e.g. deep learning without physics). We even tried this task ourselves, and we were pleasantly surprised to learn that TossingBot is more accurate than any of us engineers! Though take that with a grain of salt, as we've yet to test TossingBot against anyone with any actual athletic talent.

TossingBot can generalize to new objects, and is more accurate at throwing than the average Googler.

We also test our policies on their ability to generalize to new target locations previously unseen in training. To this end, we train on a set of boxes, then later test on a different set of boxes with entirely different landing areas. In this setting, we find that Residual Physics for throwing helps significantly, since the initial estimates of throwing velocities from projectile ballistics easily generalize to new target locations, while the residuals help make adjustments on top of those estimates to compensate for varying object properties in the real world. This is in contrast to the baseline alternative of using deep learning without physics, which can only handle target locations seen during training.

TossingBot uses Residual Physics to throw objects to unforeseen locations.

Emerging Semantics from Interaction
To explore what TossingBot learns, we place several objects in the bin, capture images, and feed them into TossingBot's trained neural network to extract intermediate pixel-wise deep features. By clustering these features based on similarity and visualizing nearest neighbors as a heatmap (hotter regions indicate more similarity in feature space), we can localize all ping pong balls in the scene. Even though the orange block shares a similar color with the ping pong balls, its features are different enough for TossingBot to make a distinction. Likewise, we can also use the extracted features to localize all marker pens, which share similar shape and mass, but do not share color. These observations suggest that TossingBot likely learns to rely more on geometric cues (e.g. shape) to learn grasping and throwing. It is also possible that the learned features reflect second-order attributes such as physical properties, which can influence how the objects should be thrown.

TossingBot learns deep features that distinguish object categories without explicit supervision.

These emerging features were learned implicitly from scratch without any explicit supervision beyond task-level grasping and throwing. Yet, they seem to be sufficient for enabling the system to distinguish between object categories (i.e., ping pong balls and marker pens). As such, this experiment speaks out to a broader concept related to machine vision: how should robots learn the semantics of the visual world? From the perspective of classic computer vision, semantics are often pre-defined using human-fabricated image datasets and manually constructed class categories. However, our experiment suggests that it is possible to implicitly learn such object-level semantics from physical interactions alone, as long as they matter for the task at hand. The more complex these interactions, the higher the resolution of the semantics. Towards more generally intelligent robots -- perhaps it is sufficient for them to develop their own notion of semantics through interaction, without requiring any human intervention.

Limitations and Future Work
Although TossingBot's results are promising, it does have its limitations. For example, it assumes that objects are robust enough to withstand landing collisions after being thrown -- further work is required to learn throws that account for fragile objects, or possibly train other robots to catch objects in ways that cushion the landing. Furthermore, TossingBot infers control parameters only from visual data -- exploring additional senses (e.g. force-torque or tactile) may enable the system to better react to new objects.

The combination of physics and deep learning that made TossingBot possible naturally leads to an interesting question: what else could benefit from Residual Physics? Investigating how the idea generalizes to other types of tasks and interactions is a promising direction for future research.

You can learn more about this work in the summary video below.

Acknowledgements
This research was done by Andy Zeng, Shuran Song (faculty at Columbia University), Johnny Lee, Alberto Rodriguez (faculty at MIT), and Thomas Funkhouser (faculty at Princeton University), with special thanks to Ryan Hickman for valuable managerial support, Ivan Krasin and Stefan Welker for fruitful technical discussions, Brandon Hurd and Julian Salazar and Sean Snyder for hardware support, Chad Richards and Jason Freidenfelds for helpful feedback on writing, Erwin Coumans for advice on PyBullet, Laura Graesser for video narration, and Regina Hickman for photography. An early preprint is available on arXiv.

Source: Google AI Blog

Long-Range Robotic Navigation via Automated Reinforcement Learning

Aleksandra Faust, Senior Research Scientist and Anthony Francis, Senior Software Engineer, Robotics at Google

In the United States alone, there are 3 million people with a mobility impairment that prevents them from ever leaving their homes. Service robots that can autonomously navigate long distances can improve the independence of people with limited mobility, for example, by bringing them groceries, medicine, and packages. Research has demonstrated that deep reinforcement learning (RL) is good at mapping raw sensory input to actions, e.g. learning to grasp objects and for robot locomotion, but RL agents usually lack the understanding of large physical spaces needed to safely navigate long distances without human help and to easily adapt to new spaces.

In three recent papers, “Learning Navigation Behaviors End-to-End with AutoRL,” “PRM-RL: Long-Range Robotic Navigation Tasks by Combining Reinforcement Learning and Sampling-based Planning”, and “Long-Range Indoor Navigation with PRM-RL”, we investigate easy-to-adapt robotic autonomy by combining deep RL with long-range planning. We train local planner agents to perform basic navigation behaviors, traversing short distances safely without collisions with moving obstacles. The local planners take noisy sensor observations, such as a 1D lidar that provides distances to obstacles, and output linear and angular velocities for robot control. We train the local planner in simulation with AutoRL, a method that automates the search for RL reward and neural network architecture. Despite their limited range of 10 - 15 meters, the local planners transfer well to both real robots and to new, previously unseen environments. This enables us to use them as building blocks for navigation in large spaces. We then build a roadmap, a graph where nodes are locations and edges connect the nodes only if local planners, which mimic real robots well with their noisy sensors and control, can traverse between them reliably.

Automating Reinforcement Learning (AutoRL)
In our first paper, we train the local planners in small, static environments. However, training with standard deep RL algorithms, such as Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG), poses several challenges. For example, the true objective of the local planners is to reach the goal, which represents a sparse reward. In practice, this requires researchers to spend significant time iterating and hand-tuning the rewards. Researchers must also make decisions about the neural network architecture, without clear accepted best practices. And finally, algorithms like DDPG are unstable learners and often exhibit catastrophic forgetfulness.

To overcome those challenges, we automate the deep Reinforcement Learning (RL) training. AutoRL is an evolutionary automation layer around deep RL that searches for a reward and neural network architecture using large-scale hyperparameter optimization. It works in two phases, reward search and neural network architecture search. During the reward search, AutoRL trains a population of DDPG agents concurrently over several generations, each with a slightly different reward function optimizing for the local planner’s true objective: reaching the destination. At the end of the reward search phase, we select the reward that leads the agents to its destination most often. In the neural network architecture search phase, we repeat the process, this time using the selected reward and tuning the network layers, optimizing for the cumulative reward.

Automating reinforcement learning with reward and neural network architecture search.

However, this iterative process means AutoRL is not sample efficient. Training one agent takes 5 million samples; AutoRL training over 10 generations of 100 agents requires 5 billion samples - equivalent to 32 years of training! The benefit is that after AutoRL the manual training process is automated, and DDPG does not experience catastrophic forgetfulness. Most importantly, the resulting policies are higher quality — AutoRL policies are robust to sensor, actuator and localization noise, and generalize well to new environments. Our best policy is 26% more successful than other navigation methods across our test environments.

AutoRL (red) success over short distances (up to 10 meters) in several unseen buildings. Compared to hand-tuned DDPG (dark-red), artificial potential fields (light blue), dynamic window approach (blue), and behavior cloning (green).

AutoRL local planner policy transfer to robots in real, unstructured environments

While these policies only perform local navigation, they are robust to moving obstacles and transfer well to real robots, even in unstructured environments. Though they were trained in simulation with only static obstacles, they can also handle moving objects effectively. The next step is to combine the AutoRL policies with sampling-based planning to extend their reach and enable long-range navigation.

Achieving Long Range Navigation with PRM-RL
Sampling-based planners tackle long-range navigation by approximating robot motions. For example, probabilistic roadmaps (PRMs) sample robot poses and connect them with feasible transitions, creating roadmaps that capture valid movements of a robot across large spaces. In our second paper, which won Best Paper in Service Robotics at ICRA 2018, we combine PRMs with hand-tuned RL-based local planners (without AutoRL) to train robots once locally and then adapt them to different environments.

First, for each robot we train a local planner policy in a generic simulated training environment. Next, we build a PRM with respect to that policy, called a PRM-RL, over a floor plan for the deployment environment. The same floor plan can be used for any robot we wish to deploy in the building in a one time per robot+environment setup.

To build a PRM-RL we connect sampled nodes only if the RL-based local planner, which represents robot noise well, can reliably and consistently navigate between them. This is done via Monte Carlo simulation. The resulting roadmap is tuned to both the abilities and geometry of the particular robot. Roadmaps for robots with the same geometry but different sensors and actuators will have different connectivity. Since the agent can navigate around corners, nodes without clear line of sight can be included. Whereas nodes near walls and obstacles are less likely to be connected into the roadmap because of sensor noise. At execution time, the RL agent navigates from roadmap waypoint to waypoint.

Roadmap being built with 3 Monte Carlo simulations per randomly selected node pair.

The largest map was 288 meters by 163 meters and contains almost 700,000 edges, collected over 4 days using 300 workers in a cluster requiring 1.1 billion collision checks.

The third paper makes several improvements over the original PRM-RL. First, we replace the hand-tuned DDPG with AutoRL-trained local planners, which results in improved long-range navigation. Second, it adds Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) maps, which robots use at execution time, as a source for building the roadmaps. Because SLAM maps are noisy, this change closes the “sim2real gap”, a phonomena in robotics where simulation-trained agents significantly underperform when transferred to real-robots. Our simulated success rates are the same as in on-robot experiments. Last, we added distributed roadmap building, resulting in very large scale roadmaps containing up to 700,000 nodes.

We evaluated the method using our AutoRL agent, building roadmaps using the floor maps of offices up to 200x larger than the training environments, accepting edges with at least 90% success over 20 trials. We compared PRM-RL to a variety of different methods over distances up to 100m, well beyond the local planner range. PRM-RL had 2 to 3 times the rate of success over baseline because the nodes were connected appropriately for the robot’s capabilities.

Navigation over 100 meters success rates in several buildings. First paper -AutoRL local planner only (blue); original PRMs (red); path-guided artificial potential fields (yellow); second paper (green); third paper - PRMs with AutoRL (orange).

We tested PRM-RL on multiple real robots and real building sites. One set of tests are shown below; the robot is very robust except near cluttered areas and off the edge of the SLAM map.

On-robot experiments

Conclusion
Autonomous robot navigation can significantly improve independence of people with limited mobility. We can achieve this by development of easy-to-adapt robotic autonomy, including methods that can be deployed in new environments using information that it is already available. This is done by automating the learning of basic, short-range navigation behaviors with AutoRL and using these learned policies in conjunction with SLAM maps to build roadmaps. These roadmaps consist of nodes connected by edges that robots can traverse consistently. The result is a policy that once trained can be used across different environments and can produce a roadmap custom-tailored to the particular robot.

Acknowledgements
The research was done by, in alphabetical order, Hao-Tien Lewis Chiang, James Davidson, Aleksandra Faust, Marek Fiser, Anthony Francis, Jasmine Hsu, J. Chase Kew, Tsang-Wei Edward Lee, Ken Oslund, Oscar Ramirez from Robotics at Google and Lydia Tapia from University of New Mexico. We thank Alexander Toshev, Brian Ichter, Chris Harris, and Vincent Vanhoucke for helpful discussions.

Source: Google AI Blog

Long-Range Robotic Navigation via Automated Reinforcement Learning

Automating reinforcement learning with reward and neural network architecture search.

AutoRL local planner policy transfer to robots in real, unstructured environments

Roadmap being built with 3 Monte Carlo simulations per randomly selected node pair.

The largest map was 288 meters by 163 meters and contains almost 700,000 edges, collected over 4 days using 300 workers in a cluster requiring 1.1 billion collision checks.

We tested PRM-RL on multiple real robots and real building sites. One set of tests are shown below; the robot is very robust except near cluttered areas and off the edge of the SLAM map.

On-robot experiments

Source: Google AI Blog

Soft Actor-Critic: Deep Reinforcement Learning for Robotics

Posted by Tuomas Haarnoja, Student Researcher and Sergey Levine, Faculty Advisor, Robotics at Google

Deep reinforcement learning (RL) provides the promise of fully automated learning of robotic behaviors directly from experience and interaction in the real world, due to its ability to process complex sensory input using general-purpose neural network representations. However, many existing RL algorithms require days or weeks (or more) worth of real-world data in order to converge to the desired behavior. Furthermore, such systems can be tough to deploy on complex robotic systems (such as legged robots) which can easily get damaged during the exploration phase, hyperparameter settings can be challenging to tune, and various safety considerations can introduce further limitations.

In collaboration with UC Berkeley, we recently released Soft Actor-Critic (SAC), a stable and efficient deep RL algorithm suitable for real-world robotic skill learning that is well-aligned with the requirements of robotic experimentation. Importantly, SAC is efficient enough to solve real-world robot tasks in only a handful of hours, and works on a variety of environments with a single set of hyperparameters. Below, we discuss some of the research behind SAC, and also describe some of our recent experiments.

Requirements for Real-World Robotic Learning
Real-world robotic experimentation brings significant challenges, such as constant interruptions in the data stream due to hardware failures and manual resets, and smooth exploration to avoid mechanical wear and tear on the robot, which set additional restrictions to both the algorithm and its implementation, including (but not limited to):

Good sample efficiency to lower the learning time
Minimal number of hyperparameters that require tuning
Reusing already collected data on different scenarios (known as off-policy learning)
Ensuring that learning and exploration does not damage the hardware

Soft Actor-Critic
Soft actor-critic is based on maximum entropy reinforcement learning, a framework that aims to both maximize the expected reward (which is the standard RL objective) and to maximize the policy's entropy. Policies with higher entropy are more random, which intuitively means that maximum entropy reinforcement learning prefers the most random policy that still achieves a high reward.

Why might this be desirable for robotic learning? The most obvious reason is that policies optimized for maximum entropy will be more robust: if the policy can tolerate highly random behavior during training, it is more likely to respond successfully to unexpected perturbations at test time. However, a more subtle reason is that training for maximum entropy can improve both the algorithm's robustness to hyperparameters and its sample efficiency (to learn more, see this BAIR blog post, and this tutorial).

Soft actor-critic maximizes the entropy augmented reward by learning a stochastic policy that maps states to actions and a Q-function that estimates the objective value of the current policy, optimizing them using approximate dynamic programming. In doing so, SAC views the objective as a grounded way to derive better reinforcement learning algorithms that perform consistently and are sample efficient enough to be applicable to real-world robotic applications. For technical details please see our technical report.

Performance of SAC
We evaluated SAC with two tasks: 1) quadrupedal walking with the Minitaur robot from Ghost Robotics, and 2) rotating a valve with a three finger Dynamixel Claw. Learning to walk presents a substantial challenge, as the robot is underactuated, and must therefore delicately balance contact forces on the legs to make forward progress. An untrained policy can lose balance and fall, and too many falls will eventually damage the robot, making sample-efficient learning essential.

Although we trained our policy only on flat terrain, we subsequently tested it on varied terrains and obstacles. In principle, policies learned with soft actor-critic should be robust to test-time perturbations, because they are trained to maximize entropy (i.e., inject maximal noise) at training-time. Indeed, we observe that the policies learned with our method are robust to these perturbations without any additional learning.

Illustration of learned walking, using SAC implemented on the Minitaur robot. A full video of the learning process can be found at our project website.

The manipulation task requires the hand to rotate a valve-like object so that the colored peg faces to the right, as shown below. This task is exceptionally challenging due to both the perception challenges and the need to control a hand with 9 degrees of freedom. In order to perceive the valve, the robot must use raw RGB images shown in the inset at the bottom right. The initial position of the valve is reset uniformly at random for each episode, forcing the policy to learn to use the raw RGB images to perceive the current valve orientation.

Soft actor-critic solves both of these tasks quickly: the Minitaur locomotion takes 2 hours, and the valve-turning task from image observations takes 20 hours. We also learned a policy for the valve-turning task without images by providing the actual valve position as an observation to the policy. Soft actor-critic can learn this easier version of the valve task in 3 hours. For comparison, prior work has used natural policy gradients to learn the same task without images in 7.4 hours.

Conclusion
Our work demonstrates that deep reinforcement learning based on maximum entropy framework can be applied to learn robot skills in challenging real-world settings. Since the policies are learned directly in the real world, they exhibit robustness to variations in the environment, which can be difficult to obtain otherwise. We also showed that we can learn directly from high-dimensional image observations, which represents a significant challenge in classical robotics. We hope that the release of SAC helps other research teams in their effort to adopt deep RL for more complex real-world tasks in the future.

For more technical details, please visit the BAIR blog post, or read an early preprint of the locomotion experiment and a more complete description of the algorithm. You can find the implementation on GitHub.

Acknowledgements
This research was done in collaboration between Google and UC Berkeley. We would like to thank all the people who were involved, including Sehoon Ha, Kristian Hartikainen, Jie Tan, George Tucker, Vincent Vanhoucke and Aurick Zhou.

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